Study of hematological profile in patients with chronic kidney disease

Background: Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) with its high prevalence, morbidity and mortality, has become an important public health problem. The incidence and prevalence of CKD is increasing worldwide, including India. CKD is associated with a variety of hematological abnormalities, include anaemia, infections and bleeding diathesis. Anaemia is the most consistent hematological abnormality and is associated with poor quality of life and poor cardiovascular outcomes.Methods: A hospital based cross-sectional observational study was done to detect the prevalence of haematological abnormalities, correlation of anaemia with CKD stage and evaluation of iron deficiency. Newly diagnosed CKD (stages 3 to 5) patients were included in this study. Presence of anaemia (Hb%, haematocrit, MCV, peripheral smear), iron deficiency (TSAT, serum ferritin), thrombocytopenia, leucocyte count and coagulation abnormalities (PT, APTT) in different stages of CKD were studied.Results: All the subjects in study group had anaemia which was normocytic and normochromic and of moderate degree in most patients. The severity of anaemia progressed with stage of the disease. Iron deficiency was significantly prevalent (52% in the study population, with transferrin saturation (TSAT) <20%). WBC count was not significantly altered. There was mild thrombocytopenia in a few patients. Bleeding time or other in vitro tests of platelet function were not measured. The coagulation parameters, PT and APTT, were not significantly altered.Conclusions: All CKD patients should be screened for iron deficiency anaemia for its early treatment and to decrease morbidity.

Role of redox iron towards an increase in mortality among patients: a systemic review and meta-analysis

An increase in biochemical concentrations of non-transferrin bound iron (NTBI) within the patients with an increase in serum iron concentration was evaluated with the following objectives: (a) Iron overloading diseases/conditions with free radicle form of ‘iron containing’ reactive oxygen species (ROS) and its imbalance mediated mortality, and (b) Intervention with iron containing drugs in context to increased redox iron concentration and treatment induced mortality. Literature search was done within Pubmed and cochrane review articles. The Redox iron levels are increased during dys-erythropoiesis and among transfusion recipient population and are responsive to iron-chelation therapy. Near expiry ‘stored blood units’ show a significant rise in the ROS level. Iron mediated ROS damage may be estimated by the serum antioxidant level, and show reduction in toxicity with high antioxidant, low pro-oxidant levels. Iron drug therapy causes a significant increase in NTBI and labile iron levels. Hospitalized patients on iron therapy however show a lower mortality rate. Serum ferritin is a mortality indicator among the high-dose iron therapy and transfusion dependent population. The cumulative difference of pre-chelation to post chelation ROS iron level was 0.97 (0.62; 1.32; N=261) among the transfusion dependent subjects and 2.89 (1.81–3.98; N=130) in the post iron therapy ‘iron ROS’ group. In conclusion, iron mediated mortality may not be mediated by redox iron among multi-transfused and iron overloaded patients.

Effect of iron metabolism of preoperation on the length of intensive care unit stay in liver transplant recipients / 中华危重病急救医学

Objective To evaluate the effect of iron metabolism of preoperation on the length of intensive care unit (ICU) stay in liver transplant recipients.Methods A retrospective study was conducted. 120 adult liver transplant recipients admitted to Tianjin First Central Hospital from September 2015 to September 2017 were enrolled. The basic data, model of end-stage liver disease (MELD) evaluation system score at admission; iron metabolism index, routine blood test, blood biochemistry, coagulation time and C-reactive protein (CRP) level within 24 hours after admission; intraoperative clinical indicators such as operation time, operation bleeding volume, red blood cells and fresh frozen plasma input volume, hot ischemia time, cold ischemia time, urine volume; and the length of ICU stay were collected. All patients were divided into iron deficiency group (ID group; serum ferritin < 100μg/L, or serum ferritin 100-300μg/L and transferrin saturation < 0.20) and non-iron deficiency group (non-ID group; serum ferritin > 300μg/L, or serum ferritin 100-300μg/L and transferrin saturation > 0.20) according iron deficiency standard. The indexes of iron metabolism, basic data and clinical indicators of two groups were compared. The correlation between serum ferritin level and the length of ICU stay was analyzed by Pearson correlation.Results Compared with non-ID group, the levels of serum iron concentration and serum ferritin were significantly decreased in ID group [serum iron concentration (μmol/L): 3.50±1.62 vs. 14.50±2.31, serum ferritin (μg/L): 67.00±31.54 vs. 315.00±36.73, bothP < 0.01], infusion volume of intraoperative red blood cells and fresh frozen plasma were significantly increased, and the length of ICU stay was significantly prolonged (days: 6.5±2.4 vs. 3.3±0.5,P < 0.01). There was no significant difference in transferrin saturation, CRP and other clinical indicators between the two groups. Correlation analysis showed that serum ferritin level was negative correlated with the length of ICU stay (r = -0.768,P < 0.001).Conclusion Preoperative iron deficiency in liver transplant recipients will lead to increased blood transfusion and prolonged length of ICU stays.

Ingesta de hierro y gen HFE en varones adultos de Buenos Aires / Iron intake and HFE gen in male adults from Buenos Aires

El consumo excesivo de hierro (Fe) en portadores de mutaciones en el gen HFE puede resultar en sobrecarga. Para evaluar el riesgo de sobrecarga de Fe fueron investigados 166 varones adultos donantes de sangre de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. Se estimó la ingesta diaria de Fe (IFe), de Fe hemínico y de Fe proveniente de harinas enriquecidas con SO4Fe. Se determinó ferritina sérica y porcentaje de saturación de transferrina (criterio de sobrecarga de Fe: ferritina sérica > 300 ng/ml y saturación de transferrina ≥ 50%). Las mutaciones C282Y, H63D y S65C fueron investigadas en sangre mediante PCR-RFLP. Todos los participantes cubrieron ampliamente el requerimiento estimado promedio de Fe (6 mg Fe/día) y 3.0% superó el máximo tolerable (45 mg Fe/día). El Fe hemínico correspondió al 9.4% de la IFe y el de harinas enriquecidas al 47.7%. Se observó una asociación entre el aumento de IFe y el de ferritina sérica (p = 0.0472), y el 2.3% de los donantes presentaron ferritina sérica > 300 ng/ml y saturación de transferrina ≥ 50%. El 29.3% de los donantes eran portadores de los genotipos H63D, S65C o C282Y, asociados a hemocromatosis hereditaria, y tenían valores de saturación de transferrina significativamente mayores a los de los donantes wild type (p = 0.0167). Si bien la incidencia clínica de hemocromatosis hereditaria fue baja en el grupo estudiado (1.2%), el consumo excesivo de Fe plantea un riesgo potencial para la salud de individuos que ignoran sus antecedentes familiares de sobrecarga de Fe.

Excess iron (Fe) intake in subjects carrying certain mutations in the HFE gene may result in Fe overload. To estimate risk of Fe overload, 166 male blood donors (19-65 years) from Buenos Aires city were investigated. Daily Fe intake (FeI), hem Fe intake, and Fe intake from SO4Fe enriched flours were estimated (SARA Computer Program and Food Composition Table, USDA). Serum ferritin and transferrin saturation were determined; criteria for Fe overload was serum ferritin > 300 ng/ml and transferrin saturation ≥ 50%. HFE genotypes C282Y, H63D and S65C were analyzed by PCR-RFLP in blood samples. No participant presented FeI lower than the estimated average requirement (6 mg Fe/day) and 3.0% was over the upper level (45 mg Fe/day). Hem Fe and Fe from flour enrichment were 9.4% and 47.7% of daily Fe intake, respectively. A significant association was observed between the increase in serum ferritin (ng/ml) and the increase in FeI (p = 0.0472); 2.3% of the donors presented serum ferritin > 300 ng/ml and transferrin saturation ≥ 50%. Genotypes associated with hereditary hemochromatosis (H63D, S65C and C282Y) were found in 29.3% of the donors. The percentage of transferrin saturation was higher in subjects carrying mutation than in wild type subjects (p = 0.0167). Although penetrance of hereditary hemochromatosis in the studied group was only 1.2%, an excessive Fe intake could enhance adverse effects in individuals unaware of any family history of Fe overload.

Associations between Lifestyle Factors and Iron Overload in Korean Adults

It has been suggested that iron overload, which indicates the accumulation of iron, generates cellular reactive oxygens and causes peroxide damages to the body. Such oxidative stresses, in a broader context, are also caused by lifestyles such as alcohol consumption and smoking. However, there are limited data on the association between these lifestyle factors and internal iron overload. In present study, we evaluated associations between lifestyle factors, such as smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity, and serum markers of iron overload. In a population-based cross-sectional study including 2,347 Korean men and women aged 49–79 years, we assessed serum transferrin saturation (TSAT) levels and defined iron overload as TSAT levels > 50% for men and > 45% for women. After excluding persons with chronic diseases and iron deficiency, multivariate odds ratio (OR) and its 95% confidence interval (CI) were estimated to evaluate associations between lifestyle factors and iron overload in 1,973 participants. In all participants, we examined a significantly positive association between heavy alcohol consumption (> 30 g/day) and iron overload; heavy drinkers showed 1.6-fold higher OR (95% CI, 1.11–2.36) than non-drinkers. Stratified analysis by sex showed that this association was significant only among men. In addition, we observed a potential association between heavy smoking > 10 cigarettes/day and iron overload (p = 0.07). In stratified analysis by sex, we examined a significant association between smoking and iron overload only among women; former or current smokers had 1.9-fold higher OR (95% CI, 1.01–3.63) than never-smoker. Our findings suggest that heavy alcohol consumption and smoking may worsen iron accumulation in the body.

Algoritmos de laboratorio para el estudio del estado del hierro / Laboratory algorithms for the study of iron status / Algoritmos de laboratório para o estudo do estado do ferro

La disponibilidad adecuada de hierro (Fe) es esencial para el desarrollo humano y la salud en general. El Fe es un componente clave de las proteínas portadoras de oxígeno, tiene un papel fundamental en el metabolismo celular y es esencial para el crecimiento y diferenciación celular. La ingesta inadecuada de Fe en la dieta, las condiciones inflamatorias crónicas o agudas y numerosas patologías están asociadas con alteraciones en la homeostasis de este metal. La regulación estricta del metabolismo del Fe es necesaria pues el Fe libre es altamente tóxico y los seres humanos sólo pueden excretar pequeñas cantidades a través del sudor, la piel, el enterocito y eliminarlo por pérdidas en procesos normales y patológicos. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar los algoritmos para la evaluación preliminar tanto de la deficiencia como de la sobrecarga de Fe, sobre la base de diferentes parámetros, algunos accesibles, de simple resolución y que pueden ser efectuados en todos los laboratorios de análisis clínicos. Entre ellos, se analizarán el hemograma con los Índices hematimétricos, Reticulocitos, Fe sérico, Capacidad Total de Fijación de Hierro (CTFH) para calcular el Índice de Saturación de Transferrina (ISTf) y también el dosaje de Ferritina (Ft), todas mediciones que integran el "estudio del estado del hierro". Asimismo, se exponen y se consideran otros marcadores de uso poco frecuente en este medio, como la Protoporfirina Eritrocitaria Libre (PEL), la Eritropoyetina (EPO), entre otras, que ayudan desde el laboratorio al diagnóstico de una anemia. En los casos de sospecha de una sobrecarga de Fe, si bien la confirmación diagnóstica se realiza por estudios genéticos, como estudio inicial se reafirma la evaluación del paciente por medio del "estudio del estado del hierro" y especialmente el dosaje de Fe sérico y del ISTf para seguimiento del tratamiento instaurado. En las últimas décadas, se han producido importantes conocimientos sobre el metabolismo del Fe que han permitido descubrir otras proteínas que intervienen en el transporte, absorción, reciclaje y balance del Fe plasmático. Entre estas, existen marcadores séricos que podrían sumarse a los algoritmos propuestos y ellos son el Receptor de Transferrina (RTf) y la Hepcidina (Hp). Como conclusión, se destaca la necesidad de medir más de un marcador del "estado del hierro" para establecer el diagnóstico de una deficiencia o de un exceso de Fe.

Adequate availability of iron (Fe) is essential for human development and overall health. Iron is a key component of the oxygen-carrying proteins, it has a fundamental role in cellular metabolism, and it is essential for cell growth and differentiation. Inadequate intake of Fe in the diet, chronic or acute inflammatory conditions and many diseases are associated with alterations in the homeostasis of this metal. Strict regulation of Fe metabolism is necessary because free Fe is highly toxic and humans can excrete only small amounts through sweat, skin, and enterocyte loss in normal and pathological processes. The objective of this work is to analyze algorithms for the preliminary assessment of both Fe deficiency and overload, based on different parameters, some simple resolution ones that can be performed in all clinical laboratories. Among them, CBC, Hematimetric Indices, Reticulocytes, serum Fe, Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC) will be considered to calculate Transferrin Saturation Index (TfSI) and Ferritin Dosage (Ft), all measurements being part of the "study of iron status." Other markers of less frequent use in our region will also be considered, such as Free Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin (FEP), and Erythropoietin (EPO), among others, that help, from the laboratory in the diagnosis of anemia. In cases of suspected Fe overload, although the diagnosis was confirmed by genetic studies performed as initial study, the patient assessment is reaffirmed through the "study of iron status" and especially serum Fe and TfSI dosage for monitoring treatment underway. In recent decades, important insights on Fe metabolism have yielded more knowledge on other proteins involved in the transport, absorption, recycling and plasmatic Fe balance. Among these, there are serum markers that could be added to the proposed algorithms, which are Transferrin Receptor (TfR) and Hepcidin (Hp). In conclusion, the need to measure more than one analyte of the "iron status" is highlighted in order to establish the diagnosis of Fe deficiency or excess.

A disponibilidade adequada de ferro (Fe) é essencial para o desenvolvimento humano e para a saúde em geral. O Fe é um componente fundamental das proteínas transportadoras de oxigénio, tem um papel fundamental no metabolismo celular, e é essencial para o crescimento e diferenciagäo celular. A ingestäo inadequada de Fe na dieta, as condigöes inflamatorias crónicas ou agudas e inúmeras doengas estäo associadas a alteragöes na homeostase deste metal. A regulagäo rigorosa do metabolismo do Fe é necessària porque o Fe livre é altamente tóxico e os seres humanos apenas podem excretar pequenas quantidades através do suor, pele, enterócitos e eliminà-lo por perdas em processos normais e patológicos. O objectivo deste trabalho é analisar algoritmos para a avaliagäo prévia tanto da deficiéncia quanto do excesso de Fe, com base em diferentes parámetros, alguns acessíveis, de simples resolugäo e que podem ser realizados em todos os laboratorios clínicos. Dentre eles seräo analisados o hemograma com Índices hematimétricos, Reticulócitos, Fe sérico, Capacidade Total de Fixagäo do Ferro (CTFF) para calcular o Índice de Saturagäo da Transferrina (IST) e também a dosagem de Ferritina (Ft), todas elas medigóes que integram o "estudo do estado do ferro". Também sào expostos e considerados outros marcadores de uso pouco frequente nesse meio, como a Protoporfirina Eritrocitària Livre (PEL), a Eritropoietina (EPO), dentre outros, que ajudam a partir do laboratório ao diagnóstico de uma anemia. Nos casos de suspeita de um excesso de Fe, embora o diagnóstico seja confirmado através de estudos genéticos, como estudo inicial é reafirmada a avaliagäo do paciente por meio do "estudo do estado do ferro" e especialmente a dosagem de Fe sérico e do IST para o seguimento do tratamento instaurado. Nas últimas décadas, houve importantes co-nhecimentos a respeito do metabolismo do Fe que permitiram descobrir outras proteínas envolvidas no transporte, absorgäo, reciclagem e balango do Fe plasmàtico. Dentre elas, hà marcadores séricos que poderiam se unir aos algoritmos propostos e eles säo o Receptor de Transferrina (Tf) e Hepcidina (Hp). Em conclusäo, destaca-se a necessidade de medir mais de um marcador do "estado do ferro", para estabelecer o diagnóstico de uma deficiéncia ou de um excesso de Fe.

Optimización del tratamiento con hierro endovenoso en hemodiálisis: Estudio clínico prospectivo a largo plazo / Optimizing iron therapy in hemodialysis: a prospective long term clinical study

A pesar del amplio uso del hierro endovenoso en hemodiálisis, resta aún identificar un índice adecuado para optimizar esta terapéutica en el largo plazo. Con ese objetivo, se diseñó un estudio prospectivo de cohorte, de larga duración, que consistió en un período basal (PB) y dos períodos experimentales: PI y PII. Se infundió hierro dextran de bajo peso molecular a 100, 150 y 200 mg/mes, respectivamente, durante 6 meses y al final de cada periodo se determinaron: saturación de transferrina (TSAT), ferritina (FERR), porcentaje de eritrocitos hipocrómicos (HYPO) y contenido de hemoglobina en reticulocitos (HCr). Durante el estudio la albúmina aumentó significativamente, pero la Hgb, la dosis de EPO y la proteína C-reactiva se mantuvieron sin cambios. Los cambios en HYPO y FERR fueron inespecíficos. Sólo TSAT (desde 21.4 ± 6 en PB a 34 ± 7.1% en PII, p = 0.01) y HCr (desde 27.5 ± 1.3 en PB a 29.3 ± 1.7 pg en PII, P = 0.045) respondieron específicamente, pero el porcentaje de aumento de TSAT fue de 65% (IC95% 22), y el de HCr sólo 6% (IC95% 2.3; p = 0.0002). Esta diferencia a favor de TSAT se observó en todos los pacientes. Los resultados sugieren la utilización de 200 mg/FeIV/mes y que, de los índices estudiados, TSAT sería el más adecuado para optimizar el uso a largo plazo del hierro endovenoso en hemodiálisis.

The usefulness of intravenous iron therapy in hemodialysis is evidence-based. However, controversy still arises about the most suitable iron marker to optimize this treatment in the long term. We aimed to determine the most suitable marker with a prospective, cohort study, designed to comprise a basal period (BP) and two consecutive experimental periods (PI, PII). Low molecular weight iron dextran was infused at 100, 150 and 200 mg/month respectively, on a biweekly basis, during 6 months. At the end of each period, the following were determined: transferrin saturation (TSAT), ferritin (FERR), percentage of hypochromic eritrocytes (HYPO) and haemoglobin content in reticulocytes (HCr). During the study, albumin increased significantly, whereas no significant changes in hemoglobin, EPO doses and C-reactive protein were observed. Changes in HYPO and FERR were unspecific. Only TSAT (from 21.4 ± 6 in PB to 34 ± 7.1% in PII, p < 0.01) and HCr (from 27.5 ± 1.3 in PB to 29.3 ± 1.7 pg in PII, P < 0.05 ) responded specifically to changes in Fe doses, but change of TSAT was 65% (CI 95% 22), whereas change of HCr was just 6% (CI 95% 2.3; p = 0.0002). The difference was observed in all patients. Results suggest that 200 mg/FeIV/month is effective and that, of the markers tested in this study, TSAT would be the most suitable one to the practicing nephrologist to optimize intravenous iron in the long term.

Indicadores bioquímicos del hierro materno en el tercer trimestre de la gestación y su relación con la antropometría materna y el peso al nacer* / Biochemical indicators of maternal iron in the third trimester of pregnancy and their relation with maternal anthropometry and neonatal weight

Objetivos: evaluar el hierro y la transferrina séricos, la capacidad de fijación de hierro de la transferrina y el porcentaje de saturación de la misma, en una submuestra de gestantes del Bajo Cauca antioqueño, y asociar estos indicadores con la antropometría materna y el peso al nacer. Métodos: estudio descriptivo, transversal en 16 mujeres en el tercer trimestre de la gestación; la transferrina sérica se midió por nefelometría, el hierro sérico y la capacidad de fijación de la transferrina por fotocolorimetría; el porcentaje de saturación se calculó con la fórmula estándar. Para la antropometría materna se tuvieron en cuenta el Índice de Masa Corporal (IMC) y la ganancia de peso; se pesó a los recién nacidos en la sala de partos, con un equipo de alta precisión. Resultados: el hierro sérico y el porcentaje de saturación de la transferrina indicaron eritropoyesis deficiente en hierro y anemia, pese a que la hemoglobina estaba por encima de 11,3 g/dL. La concentración de hemoglobina fue menor en las madres con IMC bajo, y el peso al nacer se correlacionó positivamente con este indicador. Conclusión: el hierro sérico y el porcentaje de saturación de la transferrina pueden ser biomarcadores del estado del hierro de más pronta respuesta que la hemoglobina a la deficiencia de este mineral; para mejorar el peso de los neonatos se debe monitorizar el hierro materno y satisfacer las necesidades de este mineral.

Objectives: To evaluate seric iron, transferrin iron binding capacity and its saturation index in a group of pregnant women in Antioquia, northwestern Colombia, and to associate these indicators with maternal anthropometry and neonatal weight. Methodology: This was a descriptive, cross sectional study of 16 women in the third trimester of pregnancy. Seric transferrin was determined by nephelometry, seric iron and transferrin iron binding capacity were measured by photocolorimetry; the saturation index of transferring was calculated by a standard chemical formula. Maternal anthropometry was based on the body mass index (BMI) and total body weight gain; neonatal weight was measured in the delivery room, with a high precision equipment. Results: Seric iron concentration and transferring saturation index indicated iron-deficient erythropoiesis and anemia, even though the average haemoglobin concentration was above 11.3 g/dL. Hemoglobin concentration was lower in mothers with low BMI, and neonatal weight correlated positively with maternal hemoglobin. Conclusion: Seric iron and transferrin saturation index may be biomarkers of the iron status with earlier response than hemoglobin to the deficiency of this mineral. Maternal iron should be monitorized and iron needs satisfied in order to improve the weight of newborns.

Avaliação do estado nutricional de ferro e anemia em crianças menores de 5 anos de creches públicas / Nutritional assessment of iron status and anemia in children under 5 years old at public daycare centers

OBJETIVO: Avaliar o estado nutricional de ferro e a prevalência de anemia em crianças menores de 5 anos de creches públicas da cidade do Recife (PE). MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal, com amostra aleatória sistemática de 162 crianças, de 6 a 59 meses. O estado nutricional de ferro foi avaliado em termos de reservas corporais (ferritina sérica), transferrinemia (ferro sérico, capacidade total de ligação do ferro e por cento de saturação da transferrina), eritropoiese (protoporfirina eritrocitária livre) e hemoglobinogênese (hemoglobina). RESULTADOS: A prevalência de anemia (hemoglobina < 11,0 g/dL) foi de 55,6 por cento (IC95 por cento 47,3-63,5), a redução dos estoques de ferro (ferritina sérica < 12,0 ng/mL) foi evidenciada em 30,8 por cento (IC95 por cento 22,9-39,3), baixa transferrinemia ( por cento de saturação da transferrina < 16) em 60,1 por cento (IC95 por cento 51,7-68,0) e eritropoiese deficiente (protoporfirina eritrocitária livre > 40 æmol/mol heme) em 69,6 por cento (IC95 por cento 61,0-77,1) das crianças. Os parâmetros de ferro não apresentaram correlação com o gênero (p > 0,05). No entanto, crianças < 24 meses apresentaram concentrações mais baixas de hemoglobina (p < 0,00) e níveis mais elevados de protoporfirina eritrocitária livre (p < 0,000) e de capacidade total de ligação do ferro (p < 0,001), quando comparadas às crianças > 24 meses. A significante correlação observada entre reserva, transferrinemia e eritropoiese representa achado compatível com o esperado ciclo de vida do ferro no organismo. CONCLUSÕES: A deficiência de ferro e a anemia parecem ser um importante problema de saúde pública entre as crianças menores de 5 anos de creches públicas do Recife. Logo, ações efetivas direcionadas à prevenção e ao controle dessa deficiência são fortemente recomendadas nesse contexto ecológico.

OBJECTIVE: To assess nutritional iron status and anemia prevalence in children less than 5 years old at public daycare centers in the city of Recife, PE, Brazil. METHODS: A cross-sectional study, with a systematic random sampling of 162 children aged 6 to 59 months. Nutritional iron status was assessed in terms of body iron reserves (serum ferritin), transferrinemia (serum iron, total iron binding capacity, and transferrin saturation percent), erythropoiesis (free erythrocyte protoporphyrin) and hemoglobin production (hemoglobin). RESULTS: The prevalence of anemia (hemoglobin < 11.0 g/dL) was 55.6 percent (95 percentCI 47.3-63.5), evidence was found of depleted iron stocks (serum ferritin < 12.0 ng/mL) in 30.8 percent (95 percentCI 22.9-39.3), low transferrinemia levels (transferrin saturation percent < 16) in 60.1 percent (95 percentCI 51.7-68.0) and deficient erythropoiesis (free erythrocyte protoporphyrin > 40 æmol/mol heme) in 69.6 percent (95 percentCI 61.0-77.1) of the children. Iron parameters were not correlated with sex (p > 0.05). However, children < 24 months exhibited lower hemoglobin concentrations (p < 0.00) and higher levels of free erythrocyte protoporphyrin (p < 0.000) and total iron binding capacity (p < 0.001) when compared with children > 24 months. The significant correlation observed between reserves, transferrinemia and erythropoiesis is a finding that is compatible with the expected lifecycle of iron in the body. CONCLUSIONS: Iron deficiency and anemia appear to be an important public health problem among children less than 5 years old at public daycare centers in Recife. Therefore, effective actions aimed at the prevention and control of this deficiency are strongly recommended in this ecological context.

The Effects of Iron Supplements and Cereal Intake on the Iron Nutritional Status in Children in Social Welfare Institutions

The study was designed to assess the effect of iron and cereal supplementation on children's iron nutritional status in social welfare institutions. Dietary survey was carried out methods of food weighing and record by interview (n = 74). A nutritional intervention study was carried out through supplementing iron supplements and cereal for 4 weeks in 4 - 12 years old children. Children received daily 40 mg elemental Fe as iron protein succinylate (n = 23) and 3.6 mg elemental Fe as 100 g cereal (n = 24), respectively. Blood samples were drawn before and after supplementation. Nutrients which children's intake was less than two-thirds of the RDA were vitamin A, vitamin B-1, vitamin B-2, calcium and iron. The mean daily intake of iron was 5.1 mg for male and 4.9 mg for female, and 52.3% for male and 45.4% for female of Korean RDA. The proportion of children with iron depletion assessed by TIBC (> 360 microgram/dl) and serum ferritin (< 20 ng/ml) were 56.6% and 58.7%, respectively. The proportion of children with the iron deficient erythropoiesis assessed by serum iron (< 70 microgram/dl), Hb (< 12 g/dl), Hct (< 36%) were 76.0%, 58.7%, 64.0%, respectively. After iron supplements treatment, Hb (p < 0.001), Hct (p < 0.001), serum iron (p < 0.001), transferrin saturation (p < 0.001) and serum ferritin (p < 0.01) increase significantly and only TIBC decreased slightly. After cereal supplementation, in anemic children, Hct (p < 0.001), serum iron (p < 0.001) and transferrin saturation (p < 0.001) were significantly increased. The effect of iron supplements and cereal supplementation in children with iron deficient erythropoiesis were more effective to improve the iron nutritional status than children with iron depletion. It was concluded that cereal supplementation program in anemic children was also effective to improve iron nutritional status.

Iron Status in Korean Middle School Students and Possible Association with Obesity / 대한혈액학회지

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency (ID) in Korean adolescents still remains a problem. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of iron status and investigate the relationship between the iron status and obesity. METHODS: Hematological examinations were performed on apparently healthy 12~14 year old students (M:F=451:442) living in Incheon during September, 2004. ID was defined as a serum ferritin concentration <10ng/mL. The diagnosis of iron deficiency anemia (IDA) was established when anemia (male <12.5g/dL, female <12g/dL) was associated with a ferritin level <10ng/mL and/or transferrin saturation <16%. Using age- and gender-specific BMI percentiles, overweight was defined as a BMI=85th percentile. RESULTS: The prevalence of ID and IDA were 8.4 and 15.6% and 0.9 and 4.5% in males and females, respectively. Using an analysis based on the BMI, the prevalence of obesity were 21.8 and 16.2% in males and females, respectively. The prevalence of ID in male students was decreased in the obesity (0.0%) compared with the non-obesity group (11.4%). In female students, ID showed a higher frequency in the non-obesity (20.4%) compared with the obesity group (12.0%). CONCLUSIOM: Iron deficiency still remains a major nutritional problem in adolescent females, with the prevalence of obesity significantly increasing. Although no association between the prevalence of iron deficiency and obesity was shownin this study, it is important to screen for iron deficiency and obesity, and provide effective nutritional education. Furthermore, the association of obesity with iron deficiency in relation to eating behavior should be investigated.

Iron Status in Adolescent Female Athletes / 대한혈액학회지

BACKGROUND: This study was aimed at assessing iron nutrition and lipid panel in adolescent female athletes, which were compared with those in general adolescent students. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Physical measurement and blood examination were done from adolescent female athletes (N=83) and apparently healthy students (N=758). Anemia was defined as a hemoglobin less than 12g/dL. Iron deficiency was defined as a serum ferritin concentration<10ng/mL. The diagnosis of iron deficiency anemia (IDA) was established when a low hemoglobin level (Hb<12g/dL) was associated with ferritin<10ng/mL and/or transferrin saturation<10%. RESULTS: The prevalence of anemia in female athletes aged 11 to 14 years was 22.2%, which was significantly higher than that of comparison group (10.1%). However, there were no significant differences in proportion of iron deficiency (20% vs. 27.4%) and IDA (15.6% vs. 8.9%) between two groups. The prevalence of anemia in female athletes aged 15 to 19 years was 26.3%. The prevalence of iron deficiency and IDA were 31.6% and 21.1%, respectively, which were not significantly different from the comparison group. The mean triglyceride level in the athlete girls was lower than the comparison group. And the mean HDL cholesterol level was higher than the comparison group. CONCLUSION: As the prevalence of iron deficiency and IDA is relatively common in adolescent female athletes, the measurement of iron nutrition is warranted in these groups with nutritional education.

Anemia and Serum Iron Status in Adolescent Female

BACKGROUND: Anemia is still the most common nutrient deficiency worldwide, especially in adolescence because of an insufficient supply of iron, an increased iron requirement due to accelerated physical growth and blood loss due to menstruation in girls. This study was designed to assess the anemia and serum iron status of middle school girls. METHODS: Hematologic examinations, physical examinations and questionnaires were performed for middle school girls in 1990, 1997, 1999 and 2000. Anemia was defined as a serum hemoglobin level of less than 11.5 g/dL. Iron deficiency was defined as a serum ferritin level of less than 10 ng/mL. Iron deficiency anemia was defined as anemia plus one of the following; MCV less than 78 fL, Ferritin level less than 10 ng/mL or Transferrin saturation rate less than 10%. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in mean Hb between urban and rural areas and decreases in mean Hb as with age. The prevalence of anemia decreased by year; 13.5% in 1990, 6.9 % in 1997, 6.0% in 1999, and 5.7% in 2000. It was high in high school girls(10.1% in 1997 and 12.6% in 2000). The prevalence of iron deficiency decreased by year; 36.1% in 1990, 13.9% in 1997, 13.3% in 1999, and 23.2% in 2000. It was 21.3% in 1997 high school girls and 37.8% in 2000. The prevalence of iron deficiency anemia(IDA) decreased by year; 10.0% in 1990, 4.6% in 1997, 8.3% in 1999, and 6.1% in 2000. It was 11.6% in 1997 high school girls and 18.6% in 2000. CONCLUSION: Although the prevalence of iron deficiency decreased during this period, the prevalence of anemia in the elder adolescence girls was high. Two things are recommended; first, it is necessary to screen for anemia in middle school girls and high risk groups, second, it is important to evaluate the knowledge of nutrition and to enforce effective nutritional education, leading to subjects receiving adequate nutrition.

Red Blood Cell Indices and Iron Status in Infants and Young Children with Iron Deficiency Anemia / 대한소아혈액종양학회지

PURPOSE: Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is the most common nutrient deficient disorder in infants and young children. Iron deficiency at this age group can cause serious effects on mental and psychomotor development. We analyzed the hematologic profiles of infants and young children with IDA, comparing them with control group. METHODS: The feeding practices and the iron batteries investigated in 198 anemic patients aged 5 to 36 months who had been brought to Inha General & University Hospital. Control group were 129 healthy infants and children who visited DongBu Municipal Hospital and the local health center for immunizations. They also had hemoglobin concentration (Hb), hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin and red cell distribution width (RDW) tested by the electron counters. Patients with hemoglobin level <11 g/dL who had serum ferritin <10 ng/mL or transferrin saturation <15% were classified as having IDA. RESULTS: Out of the 198 subjects (M:F=1.6:1) with IDA, 81.8% (n=162) was breast feeding more than 6 months. The main causes which they were brought to the clinic were infectious or inflammatory illness, and only 13.1% with IDA were visited for evaluation of pallor or anemia. Correlation between Hb and MCV was much more in IDA group than control group (r=0.709, r=0.368; P<0.001). CONCLUSION: By combining Hb with MCV and RDW as well as iron batteries in screening for iron deficiency and IDA, the accuracy of diagnosis can be increased. We support the use of appropriately iron-fortified formulas or weaning foods, or the routine iron supplement starting at 6 months of age in exclusively breast-fed infants to prevent the iron deficiency.

The Effects of Long-Term Plasmapheresis on the Iron Status of the Donors / 대한수혈학회지

BACKGROUND: We found that intensive and long-term plasmapheresis might be responsible for iron depletion of donors in our previous study. So we examined 88 multi-time and 44 first-time donors to investigate the effects of long-term plasmapheresis on the iron status of the body. METHODS: Eighty eight donors who had never donated whole blood or donated plasma only regularly over a period of 5 years were selected. They were divided into group 1, 2 and 3 by donation interval and group A, B and C by the number of plasmapheresis per year. Fifty eight of them had follow-up data after the donation. Whole blood was taken from the donors before plasmapheresis by the Fenwal Autopheresis-C system. Each sample was assayed for serum ferritin, iron, TIBC and transferrin saturation. RESLUTS: For serum ferritin, iron, TIBC and transferrin saturation, the mean values of multi-time donors were in the normal range but significantly lower than those of first-time donors. Twenty four (27.3%) multi-time donors had either less than 10 ng/mL of serum ferritin or less than 16% of transferrin saturation. Six donors had the lower values of both serum ferritin and transferrin saturation. Among 88 multi-time donors, there were significant differences between groups. Group 1 with the shortest donation interval had significantly lower ferritin value than the other groups. Group C with the highest donation frequency had significantly lower ferritin, TIBC and transferrin saturation values than the other groups. The results for the follow-up data of 58 donors were similar to those for the initial data. CONCLUSION: The donation intervals and the frequency of plasmapheresis influence body iron status of donors. So intensive and long-term plasmapheresis may result in iron depletion in donors. Consequently, a more sophisticated donor screening system to prevent iron depletion in intensive and long-term plasmapheresis donors should be established.

A Study on Iron Status and Anemia of Rural and Urban Middle School Students in Ulsan / 대한소아혈액종양학회지

PURPOSE: This study was aimed at assessing the difference of the prevalence of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia among rural and urban middle school students in relation to dietary habit. METHODS: With a questionnaire, blood samples were obtained from 439 apparently healthy rural and urban middle school students residing in Ulsan. Anemia was defined as hemoglobin level of 12.6 g/dL or less for boys and 11.9 g/dL or less for girls. Iron deficiency was defined as serun ferritin level less than 12 micrograms/L or/and transferrin saturation less than 14%. Iron deficiency anemia was defined as iron deficiency plus low hemoglobin. RESULTS: 1) In boys, the prevalence rate of anemia was 17.2%. Among these anemias, 5.4% were found to be iron deficiency anemia. In girls, the prevalence of anemia increased with age. The prevalence of iron deficiency anemia was 6.9%. 2) In girls, the prevalence rate of anemia in rural area was higher than that of anemia in urban area (12.6% in rural, 6.1% in urban, P<0.01). 3) The prevalence of anemia and iron deficiency in the students with menstruation was 10.6% and 33.1%, which was higher than the prevalence of 2.5% and 7.5% in those who did not have the menarche (P<0.001 and P<0.001, respectively). 4) Dietary intake of rural and urban middle school students was estimated lower in energy, iron than the recommeded dietary allowance (RDA). In girls, dietary intake of rural middle school students was estimated lower in iron, niacin, and vitamin C than that of urban middle school students. 5) Nutritional factors such as energy, carbohydrate, protein, and phosphorus showed positive correlation with RBC, hemoglobin (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: It is recommended to enforce the nutritional education to take enough iron in middle school students to reduce the high prevalence rate of anemia among pubertal students.

The Prevalence of Iron Deficiency and Iron Deficiency Anemia in Korean Adolescents / 대한혈액학회지

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency anemia frequently occurs in adolescence because of accelerated physical growth in both boys and girls, and because of menstrual iron loss and dieting to avoid obesity in female teenagers. As little is known about iron deficiency in adolescents in Korea, this study was aimed at assessing the prevalence of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in apparently healthy Korean adolescents in relation to gender, physical development, and dietary habit. METHODS: With a questionnaire regarding their demographic characteristics, blood samples were obtained from apparently healthy students aged 10~18 years by venipuncture at Sept. and Oct. 1996. Hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit, RBC indices, serum ferritin levels, iron and total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) were measured. RESULTS: A total of 1,164 students (M:F = 610:554) aged 10~18 years were included in this study. In boys, the mean Hb concentration increased with age from 13.3g/dL in the 10~12 years group to 15.3g/dL in the 17~18 years group. In girls, the mean Hb concentration was 13.2g/dL in the 10~12 years group, and 12.7g/dL in the 15~16 years group. In boys, iron deficiency prevalence was 5.6% in the 10~12 years group, 10.6% in the 13~16 years. In girls, the prevalence of anemia increased with age: 0.8% in the 10~12 years group; 5.5% in the 13~14 years group; 16.9% in the 15~16 years group; 19.7% in the 17~18 years group. Iron deficiency prevalence in girls was 9.2% in the 10~12 years group, 14.1%in the 13~14 years group, 22.6% in the 15~16 years group, and 30.7% in the 17~18 years group. The prevalence of IDA in girls was 0.8% in the 10~12 years group, 4.3% in the 13~14 years group, 7.3% in the 15~16 years group, and 13.1% in the 17~18 years group. On questionnaire, 19.5% of males and 40.0% of females usually missed one meal a day. The proportion of missed meals in girls increased with age. The proportions of Hb<12g/dL and ferritin<10ng/dL were significantly high in boys aged 10~14 years with vegetarian parents. The prevalence of anemia and iron deficiency in the students with menstruation was 14.9% and 21.6%, which was higher than the prevalence of 3.3% and 13.2% in those who did not have the menarche (P<0.001 and P<0.05, respectively). CONCLUSION: As the prevalence of iron deficiency and IDA were substantially greater than expected, studies of iron state in adolescent girls, especially middle to high school age, should be undertaken to assess iron deficiency. In addition, nutritional education for adolescents is warranted.

A Case of Hemochromatosis / 대한내과학회지

Idiopathic hemochromatosis is hereditary hemochromatosis without secondary cause. Hereditary hemochromatosis is a common disorder of iron metabolism with a prevalence of 1 case per 250-300 persons. Affected individuals absorb excessive amounts of dietary iron for a long time and tissue iron deposition results in skin discoloration, arthropathy, hepatic cirrhosis, heart cirrhosis, heart failure, diabetes mellitus and impotence. Early diagnosis and institution of phlebotomy treatment will prevent these manifestations and normalize life expectancy. We report a case of hemochromatosis in 65-year-old male of no transfusion and iron ingestion history who was anti-HCV(+), chronic alcoholic, hepatic iron index>2.24.